I think you could say "she just got off of work" and don't have to say today, unless the context needs it in order to understand what day. Other than that, I think the day is implied.

I don't know the context, but I would say the best term is "recommended book" used as an adjective to describe the book

An apparatus in a scientific paper is more specifically some type of set up used to conduct the actual experiment. Such as a titration apparatus in a chemistry experiment. It is most likely something a student must set up to conduct the experiment. Materials is more general and includes the apparatus and all other materials used for conducting the experiment.

BEER (:

This is a bit complicated, both can be used in this situation. Those is used more specifically when talking to another person and something is far away from you. So you can say "those houses over there". If you're talking about something that is close to you, you can say "these houses here". It is a bit complicated but basically they and those are interchangeable. Those is used in the first sentence to point out what is being talked about. If he just said "they aren't mountains", the other characters may not know what he was talking about. Sorry, it's hard to understand but I hope you know a little more now. (: